由格雷戈・ Bissky

對於通信的中國態度由許多影響塑造了。 二最重要是中國社會歷史和中國社會哲學家想法， Confucius (和特別是儒教)和老撾人Tzu ( 陶Te Ching). 這些影響的整體作用是限制個性和慾望爭論和逐漸灌輸一個小組身分和和諧的一個慾望。 每影響下面簡要地被審查。

從古老時期中國為生存密集居住了於，并且依靠了勞動強度米耕種。 合作特別是為隄堰和灌溉運河非常複雜系統的創作和維護是關鍵的。 為政治和地理原因人到他們的村莊，為不計其數的世代重覆的樣式沒有旅行和保持栓。 種植然後收穫的保持的常數的週期，離開很少機會(或慾望)的實驗： 一個不合格的實驗將意味飢餓。

這樣不變的存在意味智慧通過經驗和經驗來了通過年齡。 一個等級制度的社會湧現了，当年齡成為當局的來源。 完全缺席是平等所有想法，当均勻孿生對(和服從)演講作為「更老的兄弟，弟弟」。 當局因而來自不自原因，而且優越狀態： 年齡。

從「更老是好」或「舊的這個想法是權利」來了缺乏問： 在一個年輕人可能問什麼依據長輩？ 為什麼長輩對青年時期表示懷疑？ 個性成為了重要均勻村莊長輩由祖先文字和說法越來越少壓抑。 As the body of written work accumulated over the years Chinese society and communication within the society became standardized. What was right yesterday had to be right today, and would still be right tomorrow.

This rigid hierarchy based upon respect for age was already well in place by the time of Confucius. China’s greatest sage, and the greatest influence on all aspects of Chinese society, Confucius gathered all the influences of popular culture and codified them into a series of well-structured rules and laws. Beginning in the Han Dynasty (206 BC) the writings of Confucius became the state-approved philosophy, and, though endlessly interpreted and added to, remained the official philosophy at least until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911.

Confucius taught the importance of following rules and of maintaining relationships, and explained the hierarchy that all fit into, explained how one should act towards others above and below in the hierarchy, and made the goal of all human behavior the maintenance of harmony. The “goodness” of an individual could not be measured by the individual but only by the group, and was decided by how the individual acted towards the group. Proper behavior towards others became the only way to achieve “goodness,” thus making harmony with others more important than individual expression or desires.

In contrast to Confucianism and its emphasis on proper behavior towards others was the Tao Te Ching (Taoism) of Lao Tzu and its emphasis on man’s finding peace with himself and within nature. A philosophy perfectly suited for hermits, Taoism taught that man can never really know anything, and should therefore not strive to understand but to accept, not try to change nature but to live in harmony with it. Indeed, the entire concept of proactive change was viewed with suspicion—change happened only by not trying to make change happen.

Both philosophical orientations shunned clear speech and (especially) argumentation. Argumentation—the asking of difficult questions in order to find the true nature of a thing or idea—is necessary for discovery, but discovery was not necessary for either of the great Chinese philosophers: for Confucius because truth depended upon age, and was thus already known; for Lao Tzu because it was impossible to really know anything. In fact, both philosophies argued against what we now call eloquence, persuasiveness or precision. As said in the Tao Te Ching: “He who knows does not talk; he who talks does not know. Keep your mouth shut.” The final chapter sums it up:

True words are not beautiful; beautiful words are not true. A good man does not argue; he who argues is not a good man . . . The Way of the Sage is to act but not to compete.

Yet the Chinese still had to communicate: messages still had to be transmitted. What developed was one of the most sophisticated and complicated ways of communicating in the world. Understanding messages involved far more than the meaning of words. Chinese communication became like highly-structured poetry: understanding messages meant considering how something was said, then the meaning of the words, then who said it, then when it was said (and many other factors). The style was very indirect, with real skill being the ability to communicate something without ever saying it, and understanding something without ever hearing it. Such indirectness made the ultimate goal of Confucian thought—maintaining harmony in human relations—easier. Understanding Chinese attitudes towards communication depends upon understanding that the goal of all communication was (and is) the desire to maintain harmony in human relations. No matter what the message, it should be given in a way that would not upset the relationship between sender and receiver.

Emphasis was on “being polite,” something we now call the desire not to lose, or cause one to lose, face. Over the years this created a deep-set fear in most Chinese of going too far or saying too much when communicating. Other people’s feelings became very important, and negative messages such as disagreement or disappointment were communicated in an indirect, save face way. Further emphasis was placed upon accepting the world around you, on obedience and a lack of questioning. No need to discover the new meant no need for precision or clarity. Over centuries a body of ritual phrases developed, and communication skill came from repeating them at the appropriate time.

Greg Bissky, www.treasuremountain.com

This is the third part of the article “Communication in Chinese Offices”. Next week we will publish part four.