Par Greg Bissky

Des attitudes chinoises envers la communication ont été formées par beaucoup d'influences. Deux du plus important sont histoire sociale chinoise et la pensée des philosophes sociaux chinois, particulièrement Confucius (et confucianisme) et Tzu laotien ( Tao Te Ching). L'effet global de ces influences a été de limiter l'individualité et le désir de discuter, et d'instiller une identité de groupe et un désir pour l'harmonie. Chaque influence est brièvement examinée ci-dessous.

Des périodes antiques la Chine dense-a été peuplée, et dépendue pour la survie de la culture de main-d'oeuvre de riz. La coopération était cruciale, particulièrement pour la création et l'entretien d'un système très complexe des digues et des canaux d'irrigation. Pour des raisons politiques et géographiques les personnes n'ont pas voyagé, et resté attachées à leur village, un modèle répété pour les générations innombrables. Le cycle de planter la constante restée alors de moisson, partant de l'occasion très petite (ou du désir) pour l'expérimentation : une expérience échouée signifierait la famine.

Une existence si invariable a signifié que la sagesse est venue par l'expérience, et l'expérience par l'âge. Une société hiérarchique a émergé, avec l'âge devenant la source d'autorité. Totalement absente était n'importe quelle idée d'égalité, avec les jumeaux égaux s'adressant (et l'obéissant) en tant que « frère plus âgé, un plus jeune frère. » L'autorité est venue ainsi pas de la raison mais du statut supérieur : âge.

De cette idée qui « plus vieux est meilleur » ou « plus ancien est la droite » est venue un manque d'interrogation : sur quelle base un jeune pourrait-il interroger un aîné ? Pourquoi est-ce qu'un aîné remettrait en cause une jeunesse ? L'individualité est devenue de moins en moins les aînés important-égaux de village ont été contraintes par des écritures et des énonciations des ancêtres. As the body of written work accumulated over the years Chinese society and communication within the society became standardized. What was right yesterday had to be right today, and would still be right tomorrow.

This rigid hierarchy based upon respect for age was already well in place by the time of Confucius. China’s greatest sage, and the greatest influence on all aspects of Chinese society, Confucius gathered all the influences of popular culture and codified them into a series of well-structured rules and laws. Beginning in the Han Dynasty (206 BC) the writings of Confucius became the state-approved philosophy, and, though endlessly interpreted and added to, remained the official philosophy at least until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911.

Confucius taught the importance of following rules and of maintaining relationships, and explained the hierarchy that all fit into, explained how one should act towards others above and below in the hierarchy, and made the goal of all human behavior the maintenance of harmony. The “goodness” of an individual could not be measured by the individual but only by the group, and was decided by how the individual acted towards the group. Proper behavior towards others became the only way to achieve “goodness,” thus making harmony with others more important than individual expression or desires.

In contrast to Confucianism and its emphasis on proper behavior towards others was the Tao Te Ching (Taoism) of Lao Tzu and its emphasis on man’s finding peace with himself and within nature. A philosophy perfectly suited for hermits, Taoism taught that man can never really know anything, and should therefore not strive to understand but to accept, not try to change nature but to live in harmony with it. Indeed, the entire concept of proactive change was viewed with suspicion—change happened only by not trying to make change happen.

Both philosophical orientations shunned clear speech and (especially) argumentation. Argumentation—the asking of difficult questions in order to find the true nature of a thing or idea—is necessary for discovery, but discovery was not necessary for either of the great Chinese philosophers: for Confucius because truth depended upon age, and was thus already known; for Lao Tzu because it was impossible to really know anything. In fact, both philosophies argued against what we now call eloquence, persuasiveness or precision. As said in the Tao Te Ching: “He who knows does not talk; he who talks does not know. Keep your mouth shut.” The final chapter sums it up:

True words are not beautiful; beautiful words are not true. A good man does not argue; he who argues is not a good man . . . The Way of the Sage is to act but not to compete.

Yet the Chinese still had to communicate: messages still had to be transmitted. What developed was one of the most sophisticated and complicated ways of communicating in the world. Understanding messages involved far more than the meaning of words. Chinese communication became like highly-structured poetry: understanding messages meant considering how something was said, then the meaning of the words, then who said it, then when it was said (and many other factors). The style was very indirect, with real skill being the ability to communicate something without ever saying it, and understanding something without ever hearing it. Such indirectness made the ultimate goal of Confucian thought—maintaining harmony in human relations—easier. Understanding Chinese attitudes towards communication depends upon understanding that the goal of all communication was (and is) the desire to maintain harmony in human relations. No matter what the message, it should be given in a way that would not upset the relationship between sender and receiver.

Emphasis was on “being polite,” something we now call the desire not to lose, or cause one to lose, face. Over the years this created a deep-set fear in most Chinese of going too far or saying too much when communicating. Other people’s feelings became very important, and negative messages such as disagreement or disappointment were communicated in an indirect, save face way. Further emphasis was placed upon accepting the world around you, on obedience and a lack of questioning. No need to discover the new meant no need for precision or clarity. Over centuries a body of ritual phrases developed, and communication skill came from repeating them at the appropriate time.

Greg Bissky, www.treasuremountain.com

This is the third part of the article “Communication in Chinese Offices”. Next week we will publish part four.